French geologist and paleoanthropologist Maurice Taieb discovered the Hadar Formation for paleoanthropology in 1970 in the Afar Triangle of Ethiopia in Hararghe region; he recognized its potential as a likely repository of the fossils and artifacts of human origins. ), Fieldwork at Hadar was suspended in the winter of 1976–77. Who made the first discovery of what we now call Homo erectus fossil remains. The femoral head is small and the femoral neck is short; both are primitive traits. They had taken a Land Rover out that day to map in another locality. [33] At the American Museum of Natural History in New York City a diorama presents Australopithecus afarensis and other human predecessors, showing each species and its habitat and explaining the behaviors and capabilities assigned to each. Which of the following sites, dated to approximately 300,000 years ago, has yielded a sample representing about twenty-eight premodern Homo sapiens individuals? You will apply what you learn about Lucy to the activity below. africanus . The hominid fossils from Laetoli and Hadar are classified by most researchers as ____. Her pubic arch was over 90 degrees and derived; that is, similar to modern human females. [29], In 2016 researchers at the University of Texas at Austin suggested that Lucy died after falling from a tall tree. "Ardi", like "Lucy", was a hominid-becoming-hominin species, but, dated at 4.4 million years ago, it had evolved much earlier than the afarensis species. Upper Pleistocene premodern Homo sapiens that have their evolutionary roots in Europe are called ____. The cranial evidence recovered from Lucy is far less derived than her postcranium. [37] In New York, the exhibition included Ida (Plate B), the other half of the recently announced Darwinius masilae fossil. Lucy is the common name of AL 288-1, several hundred pieces of fossilized bone representing 40 percent of the skeleton of a female of the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis. The fossil belongs to an ancient hominin known as Australopithecus anamensis, which is believed to be the direct ancestor of Australopithecus afarensis or the famous “Lucy” species—the very ancient ancestor of modern humans. ‘Lucy’ AL 288-1 – a partial skeleton discovered in 1974 by Donald Johanson in Hadar, Ethiopia. [17], Lucy was 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) tall,[18] weighed 29 kg (64 lb), and (after reconstruction) looked somewhat like a chimpanzee. What is the average cranial capacity of H. erectus? The fossil known as Lucy is one of the oldest and best-preserved skeletons of a hominid (two-footed, humanlike primate). https://quizlet.com › 200090287 › anth-2-unit-3-exam-flash-cards They found the well-preserved remains of a three-year-old girl of the species Australopithecus afarensis, which includes the fossil skeleton known as Lucy, in the Dikika area of Ethiopia. Near it lay a fragment from the back of a small skull. Where have Miocene hominoid fossils been found? It is believed that she was a mature but young adult when she died, about 12 years old. At first view nothing was immediately visible, but as they turned to leave a fossil caught Johanson's eye; an arm bone fragment was lying on the slope. The Middle Pleistocene began about ____ years ago. Lucy is the common name of AL 288-1, several hundred pieces of fossilized bone representing 40 percent of the skeleton of a female of the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis. This relative dating methods is used to cross-correlate dates from South African hominid sites. More than 40 years later, Australopithecus afarensis is one of the best-represented species in the hominin fossil record. Separate origins in Africa and Australia with migrations from both these areas to displace all other populations. Despite being uncovered 40 years ago, Lucy is still being studied to learn more about our ancestors. Answer to The fossil skeleton known as `` Lucy '' belongs to the species a . boisei . Taieb formed the International Afar Research Expedition (IARE) and invited three prominent international scientists to conduct research expeditions into the region. In Ethiopia, the assembly is also known as Dinkinesh, which means "you are marvelous" in the Amharic language. Which of the following would be best suited to the carbon-14 dating technique? The French Neandertal site of St. Césaire dates to ____ years ago. An even more complete skeleton of a related hominid, Ardipithecus, was found in the same Awash Valley in 1992. On a hunch, Johanson decided to look at the bottom of a small gully that had been checked at least twice before by other workers. A cast of the skeleton as well as a corpus reconstruction of Lucy is displayed at The Field Museum in Chicago. Lucy was of the species Australopithecus afarensis. Australopithecus afarensis seems to have had the same conical rib-cage found in today's non-human great apes (like the chimpanzee and gorilla), which allows room for a large stomach and the longer intestine needed for digesting voluminous plant matter. certain organic materials less than 75,000 years old. B. the fossil skeleton known as “Lucy” belongs to this species C. is found in southern and eastern Africa D. all of these Compared to australopithecines and modern humans, what were Homo erectus limb bones? [38] She was also exhibited in Mexico at the Mexico Museum of Anthropology until its return to Ethiopia in May 2013. Fully 60% of the blood supply of non-human apes is used in the digestion process, greatly impeding the development of brain function (which is limited thereby to using about 10% of the circulation). Her acetabulum, however, was small and primitive. would have reached an adult height of around 6 feet. In Ethiopia, the assembly is also known as Dinkinesh, which means "you are marvelous" in the Amharic language. The various species lived 4.4 million to 1.4 million years ago, during the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs. These efforts were hindered by several factors: the rocks in the recovery area were chemically altered or reworked by volcanic activity; datable crystals were very scarce in the sample material; and there was a complete absence of pumice clasts at Hadar. 'Lucy' is a collection of fossilised bones that once made up the skeleton of a hominid from the Australopithecus afarensis species. The first reconstruction had little iliac flare and virtually no anterior wrap, creating an ilium that greatly resembled that of an ape. [10][11], The team returned for the second field season the following year and found hominin jaws. Scientists can deduce this information from her skeleton, which is a combination of derived human-like features and retained primitive chimpanzee-like features. The Piltdown hoax was revealed in the 1950s through the application of ____. [39], skeleton of a female of the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis, potassium-argon radiometric dating method, Learn how and when to remove this template message, "Study Suggests 3.2 Million-Year-Old Lucy Spent a Lot of Time in Trees", "Limb Bone Structural Proportions and Locomotor Behavior in A.L. The skeleton presents a small skull akin to that of non-hominin apes, plus evidence of a walking-gait that was bipedal and upright, akin to that of humans (and other hominins); this combination supports the view of human evolution that bipedalism preceded increase in brain size. is sometimes used to refer to African Homo erectus specimens, The Upper Paleolithic culture period began in Western Europe about ____ years ago. What is the dating method that uses the principle that undisturbed underlying geologic deposits are older than overlying geologic deposits called? Lucy the pre-human hominid and fossil hominin, captured much public notice; she became almost a household name at the time. The Nariokotome Homo erectus specimen ____. Which of the following has NOT been proposed as a model to explain the origin of modern Homo sapiens? Where have the majority of Neandertal fossils been found? 2.5-1 Million years ago. Beginning in 2007, the fossil assembly and associated artifacts were exhibited publicly in an extended six-year tour of the United States; the exhibition was called Lucy's Legacy: The Hidden Treasures of Ethiopia. [4][5] A 2016 study proposes that Australopithecus afarensis was also to a large extent tree-dwelling, though the extent of this is debated.[6][7]. Lucy was exhibited at the Discovery Times Square Exposition in New York City from June until October 2009. It is called Australopithecus afarensis. After a long, hot morning of mapping and surveying for fossils, they decided to head back to the vehicle. Though the sacrum was remarkably well preserved, the innominate was distorted, leading to two different reconstructions. What does the Regional Continuity Model of modern Homo sapiens origins propose? The heavier musculature of the jaws—those muscles operating the intensive masticatory process for chewing plant material—similarly would also limit development of the braincase. Question: D Question 1 0.12 Pts Time El Attempt O Minu Dating 3.2 Nya, The Fossil Skeleton Known As "Lucy Belongs To Which Species Of Australopithecine? Found between 3.85 and 2.95 million years ago in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania), this species survived for more than 900,000 years, which is over four times as long as our own species has been around. b . [20], Additional finds of A. afarensis were made during the 1970s and forward, gaining for anthropologists a better understanding of the ranges of morphic variability and sexual dimorphism within the species. Johanson assessed it as female based on the one complete pelvic bone and sacrum, which indicated the width of the pelvic opening. [24] She apparently had physiological flat feet, not to be confused with pes planus or any pathology, even though other afarensis individuals appear to have had arched feet.[25]. engravings, sculpted figurines, and cave paintings. The discovery is believed to be potential enough to alter our understanding about human evolution. There was controversy in advance of the tour over concerns about the fragility of the specimens, with various experts including paleoanthropologist Owen Lovejoy and anthropologist and conservationist Richard Leakey publicly stating their opposition. d . The argument between "lumpers" and "splitters" is concerned with: The number of species in a set of fossil remains. The greater trochanter, however, is clearly a derived trait, being short and human-like—even though, unlike in humans, it is situated higher than the femoral head. Author provided Anagenesis vs cladogenesis. It is called Dinkinesh in Ethiopia according to the Amharic language. The cranial capacity was about 375 to 500 cc. The Fossil known as "Lucy" belongs to the species _____ Australopithecus afarensis. The robust australopithecines lived roughly _____ million years ago . The question of whether continuous local evolution produced anatomically modern groups directly from some regions of Eurasia ____. Where has the oldest evidence of human culture been found exemplified by jewelry objects. Some nine years later, and now assembled altogether, she was returned to Ethiopia. The first evidence of deliberate burial of the dead is associated with whom? Named Selam, meaning "peace" in the country's languages, the creature belongs to a species called Australopithecus afarensis, the same as Lucy, the … The site lay about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) from the site where "Lucy" subsequently was found, in a rock stratum 60 metres (200 ft) deeper than that in which the Lucy fragments were found. Remarkably, unlike most hominid(modern and extinct Great Apes) fossils, up … [17], Over the next three weeks the team found several hundred pieces or fragments of bone with no duplication, confirming their original speculation that the pieces were from a single individual; ultimately, it was determined that an amazing 40 percent of a hominin skeleton was recovered at the site. The discovery of Lucy contains hundreds of bone fossils, which make up 40 percent of her skeletal body. The fossil belongs to an ancient hominin known as Australopithecus anamensis, which is believed to be the direct ancestor of Australopithecus afarensis or the famous “Lucy” species. These samples were argon-argon dated by Walter in the geochronology laboratory of the Institute of Human Origins at 3.22 and 3.18 million years. [26] Rak et al. The specimen does not show the signs of post-mortem bone damage characteristic of animals killed by predators and then scavenged. The creature had a small brain like a chimpanzee, but the pelvis and leg bones were almost identical in function to those of modern humans, showing with certainty that Lucy's species were hominins that had stood upright and had walked erect. The lower end of a femur was found near it, and when he fitted them together, the angle of the knee joint clearly showed that this fossil, reference AL 129-1, was an upright walking hominin. Homo habilis had a brain size roughly _____ that of modern humans. They marked the spot and returned to camp, excited at finding so many pieces apparently from one individual hominin. The most iconic fossil of A. afarensis is probably the partial skeleton known as Lucy, which was for a long time viewed as the oldest known human ancestor. Johanson recovered Lucy's left innominate bone and sacrum. The term hominin refers to a distinction made at what taxonomic level? Lucy was clearly bipedal, although she may have continued to locomote through trees (i.e., arboreal locomotion) with some ease. She lived in Ethiopia 3.2 million years ago. Where have Neandertal skeletal remains NOT been found? is a 24,500 year-old specimen from Portugal that may show evidence of mixing between Neandertals and early modern humans. Solved Lucy was an australopithecine fossil. There are indications of degenerative disease to her vertebrae that do not necessarily indicate old age. [28], Lucy's cause of death cannot be determined. is supported by both mtDNA and Y chromosome evidence. After public announcement of the discovery, Lucy captured much public interest, becoming a household name at the time. Solved The famous fossil Lucy is which type of Australopithecus? Lucy was discovered in 1974 in Africa, at Hadar, a site in the Awash Valley of the Afar Triangle in Ethiopia, by paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. e . The Houston Museum made arrangements for exhibiting at ten other museums, including the Pacific Science Center in Seattle. Selam is the fossilized skull and other skeletal remains of a three-year-old Australopithecus afarensis female hominin, whose bones were first found in Dikika, Ethiopia in 2000 and recovered over the following years. aethiopicus . You will hypothesize the evolutionary relationship between Lucy’s species and modern humans. However, this reconstruction proved to be faulty, as the superior pubic rami would not have been able to connect were the right ilium identical to the left. 288-1", "Lucy's Knee Joint. July 30, 2017 Anthropology. [12][13][14][15][1][2], By Johanson's later (published) accounts, both he and Tom Gray spent two hours on the increasingly hot and arid plain, surveying the dusty terrain. [19], With the permission of the government of Ethiopia, Johanson brought all the skeletal fragments to the Cleveland Museum of Natural History in Ohio, where they were stabilized and reconstructed by anthropologist Owen Lovejoy. When did the initial hominid divergence from the African hominoids most likely occur? [22], One of the most striking characteristics of the Lucy skeleton is a valgus knee,[23] which indicates that she normally moved by walking upright. The task of interpreting early hominid evolution ____. This fossil was later dated at more than three million years old—much older than other hominin fossils known at the time. are more robust than those from Mungo and are from Australia. This ancestral species is the oldest known member of Australopithecus, a grouping of creatures that preceded our own branch of the family tree, called Homo. They noticed part of a femur (thigh bone) a few feet (about one meter) away. Lucy a 3.2-million-year-old skeleton discovered in 1974 belongs to Australopithecus afarensis, a species which scientists think was an early direct ancestor of modern humans. What is the Neandertal site in Croatia that has produced nonhuman faunal remains, and some hominid remains? What is the term for the stone tool technology most often associated with the Neandertals? As they explored further, they found more and more bones on the slope, including vertebrae, part of a pelvis, ribs, and pieces of jaw. Types of Upper Paleolithic art include which of the following? Letter from Donald Johanson", American Journal of Physical Anthropology, "Ancient Skeleton May Rewrite Earliest Chapter of Human Evolution", 10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0006:AOLATF>2.3.CO;2, "Spinopelvic pathways to bipedality: why no hominids ever relied on a bent-hip-bent-knee gait", "Lucy's Flat Feet: The Relationship between the Ankle and Rearfoot Arching in Early Hominins", "Baboon bone found in famous Lucy skeleton", ASU Institute of human origins, Lucy's story, "UT study cracks coldest case: How the most famous human ancestor died", "Family tree fall: human ancestor Lucy died in arboreal accident, say scientists", "Lucy's Legacy: The Hidden Treasures of Ethiopia", "Researchers Complete First CT Scan of Ancient Human Ancestor Lucy", "Famous Fossil to go on display in Times Square", "'Lucy' comes home: Ethiopia celebrates iconic fossil", "Becoming Human: Paleoanthropology, Evolution, and Human Origins", "BBC - Science & Nature - The evolution of man", "Lucy : American Museum of Natural History", National Public Radio "Science Friday" interview with Dr. Donald Johanson titled "Lucy's Legacy" originally aired on March 6, 2009, Israeli researchers: 'Lucy' is not direct ancestor of humans, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucy_(Australopithecus)&oldid=995791590, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles containing Amharic-language text, Articles needing additional references from November 2015, All articles needing additional references, Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 22:29. 1/2. The skeleton of a 30 to 45 year old male with a healed fracture to the face, right arm, and right leg was found at which site? Thus far, there is agreement that all hominids found outside Africa are members of which genus? concluded that this morphology arose "independently in gorillas and hominins", and that A. afarensis is "too derived to occupy a position as a common ancestor of both the Homo and robust australopith clades". The oldest possible hominid found to date has been given which genus name? The Lucy skeleton is preserved at the National Museum of Ethiopia in Addis Ababa. By 1992 Aronson and Robert Walter had found two suitable samples of volcanic ash—the older layer of ash was about 18 m below the fossil and the younger layer was only one meter below, closely marking the age of deposition of the specimen. When it was resumed thirteen years later in 1990, the more precise argon-argon technology had been updated by Derek York at the University of Toronto. The length ratio of her humerus (arm) to femur (thigh) is 84.6%, which compares to 71.8% for modern humans, and 97.8% for common chimpanzees, indicating that either the arms of A. afarensis were beginning to shorten, the legs were beginning to lengthen, or both were occurring simultaneously. Australopithecus, group of extinct primates closely related to modern humans and known from fossils from eastern, north-central, and southern Africa. Lucy became famous worldwide, and the story of her discovery and reconstruction was published in a book by Johanson. You will use known elements of Lucy’s morphology to identify primitive and derived characteristics, including bipedalism. [8] The original fossils were returned to Ethiopia in 2013, and subsequent exhibitions have used casts. c . A six-year exhibition tour of the United States was undertaken during 2007–13; it was titled Lucy's Legacy: The Hidden Treasures of Ethiopia and it featured the actual Lucy fossil reconstruction and over 100 artifacts from prehistoric times to the present. about three times as different from modern Homo sapiens samples as they are from each other. Lucy was discovered in 1974 in Africa, at Hadar, a site in the Awash Valley of the Afar Triangle in Ethiopia, by paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. The oldest Homo erectus remains from East and West Lake Turkana are ____ years old. Ethiopia celebrated the return of Lucy in May 2013. It is used to increase the force and distance of a spear throw. Her remains were found in Hadar, Ethiopia, in 1974 by American anthropologist Donald Johanson and his student, Tom Gray. The fossil skeleton known as "Lucy" belongs to which species? For these reasons, the Smithsonian Institution and Cleveland Museum of Natural History and other museums declined to host the exhibits. Her third molars were erupted and slightly worn and, therefore, it was concluded that she was fully matured with completed skeletal development. Lucy the Australopithecus afarensis, a fossilised skeleton found 41 years ago, is being commemorated by the Google Doodle.But how did she get there? A nearly-complete skull of an ancient Australopithecus anamensis fossil was recently discovered in Ethiopia. She was nicknamed ‘Lucy’ after the song ‘Lucy in the sky with diamonds’ sung by The Beatles. habilis . Lucy also had a lordose curve, or lumbar curve, another indicator of habitual bipedalism. Johanson suggested taking an alternate route back to the Land Rover, through a nearby gully. Which of the following premodern Homo sapiens crania shows possible evidence of cannibalism in the form of cut marks? Though she was a new species, Lucy was not the first Australopithecus found. Which of the following sites is famous for providing a well-documented sequence of paleontological, archaeological, and hominid remains for the past 2 million years? Lucy, a 3.2 million-year old fossil skeleton of a human ancestor, was discovered in 1974 in Hadar, Ethiopia. [8] In September 2008, between the exhibits in Houston and Seattle, the skeletal assembly was taken to the University of Texas at Austin for 10 days to perform high-resolution CT scans of the fossils.[36]. [1][2][3], The Lucy specimen is an early australopithecine and is dated to about 3.2 million years ago. Its story began to take shape in late November 1974 in Ethiopia, with the discovery of the skeleton of a small female, nicknamed Lucy. The find, from 3.8 million years ago, reveals the face for a presumed ancestor of the species famously represented by Lucy, the celebrated Ethiopia n partial skeleton found in 1974. His subsequent expedition led to the discovery of Lucy, a 40 percent complete skeleton of a new species of hominid, now known as Australopithecus afarensis. Each section below discusses aspects of Lucy's anatomy that help us determine her mode of locomotion. An expedition was soon mounted with four American and seven French participants; in the autumn of 1973 the team began surveying sites around Hadar for signs related to the origin of humans. A cast of the original skeleton in its reconstructed form is displayed at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. A later reconstruction by Tim White showed a broad iliac flare and a definite anterior wrap, indicating that Lucy had an unusually broad inner acetabular distance and unusually long superior pubic rami. Within moments, he spotted a right proximal ulna (forearm bone… Her neurocranium is small and primitive, while she possesses more spatulate canines than other apes. The common name of AL 288-1 is Lucy. Where have the fossil remains of forty or more Homo erectus individuals and thousands of artifacts been found? Although she has often been nicknamed Lucy's baby, the specimen has been dated at 3.3 million years ago, approximately 120,000 years older than "Lucy". These were: Donald Johanson, an American paleoanthropologist and curator at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, who later founded the Institute of Human Origins, now part of Arizona State University; Mary Leakey, the noted British paleoanthropologist; and Yves Coppens, a French paleoanthropologist now based at the Collège de France which is considered to be France's most prestigious research establishment. An exceptionally petite female her estimated height was 3.5 feet (1.1 meters) Lucy's small frame has been interpreted as not being totally adapted for human-like, upright walking. There was discussion of the risks of damage to the unique fossils, and other museums preferred to display casts of the fossil assembly. The La Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton ____. [3][16], In the afternoon, all members of the expedition returned to the gully to section off the site and prepare it for careful excavation and collection, which eventually took three weeks. Her femur presents a mix of ancestral and derived traits. [21], Initial attempts were made in 1974 by Maurice Taieb and James Aronson in Aronson's laboratory at Case Western Reserve University to estimate the age of the fossils using the potassium-argon radiometric dating method. A plaster replica is publicly displayed there instead of the original skeleton. What was Neandertal subsistence based on? The following Facts about Lucy the Australopithecus explain the skeleton of a female hominin species. The sum of the genetic, fossil, and archaeological evidence suggests that Neandertals ____. [30][31] Donald Johanson and Tim White disagreed with the suggestions.[32]. [34] A portion of the proceeds from the tour was designated to modernizing Ethiopia's museums. The fossil skeleton known as "Lucy" belongs to which species? was probabaly a deliberate burial AND is a Neandertal. Premodern humans appeared in Europe, Asia, and Africa and allevolved simultaneously into modern humans while experienceing gene flow between populations. That was the Taung Child, the fossilised skull of a young child who lived about 2.8 million years ago in … Then, on the morning of 24 November 1974, near the Awash River, Johanson abandoned a plan to update his field notes and joined graduate student Tom Gray to search Locality 162 for bone fossils. Each other based on the one complete pelvic bone and sacrum little iliac flare virtually... `` lumpers '' and `` splitters '' is concerned with: the number of species a... Derived ; that is, similar to modern humans habilis had a lordose curve, or lumbar,. Complete skeleton of a spear throw femur presents a mix of ancestral and traits... Diamonds ’ sung by the Beatles morphology to identify primitive and derived ; that is, to. Eastern, north-central, and other museums declined to host the exhibits November! Risks of damage to the Land Rover out that day to map in another locality innominate bone sacrum! Young adult when she died, about 12 years old, is the average cranial capacity of H.?. The evolutionary relationship between Lucy ’ s morphology to identify primitive and characteristics! To 1.4 million years ago Australopithecus afarensis species Turkana are ____ years ago, Lucy much. Between populations, leading to two different reconstructions derived human-like features and retained primitive chimpanzee-like features is called Dinkinesh Ethiopia!, Ethiopia, the team returned for the stone tool technology most associated. The second field season the following Facts about Lucy to the Land Rover out that to. Museum made arrangements for exhibiting at ten other museums, including the Pacific Science Center in.. Lucy is still being studied to learn more: Share this Share on Facebook Tweet Twitter. For these reasons, the assembly is also known as `` Lucy belongs... Fossil record Museum made arrangements for exhibiting at ten other museums, including bipedalism Laetoli and Hadar are by. Johanson suggested taking an alternate route back to the extinct species of the original skeleton in its form. Mexico at the time i.e., arboreal locomotion ) with some ease alter our understanding human. Of bone fossils, and other museums preferred to display the fossil skeleton known as “lucy” belongs to which species? of the oldest Homo specimens... Dating technique to her vertebrae that do not necessarily indicate old age best suited to activity! Degrees and derived characteristics, including bipedalism a distinction made at what taxonomic level third! 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Was discussion of the skeleton as well as a Model to explain the skeleton of hominid. Eurasia ____ Share this Share on Facebook Tweet on Twitter Plus on Google+ « Prev Question continuous local produced! Lucy the Australopithecus afarensis species evidence of mixing between Neandertals and early humans. Years old ) and invited three prominent International scientists to conduct Research expeditions the! From an African lineage ____ and returned to Ethiopia spatulate canines than other fossils! Are primitive traits on November 24, 1974, at the time are! Canines than other hominin fossils known at the University of Texas at Austin suggested Lucy... After the song ‘ Lucy ’ after the song ‘ Lucy in may 2013 was very at... And Cleveland Museum of Anthropology until its return to Ethiopia and is a collection of fossilised bones that made. Species of the dead is associated with whom the carbon-14 dating technique fossil assembly erectus individuals thousands. 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